Phaedra is an interesting character in Greek mythology. Some people love her, some people hate her and most people have never heard of her. She was a Cretan princess and like most women in Greek mythology, she is best known for her male counterparts, Phaedra is the wife of Theseus and daughter of King Minos.
Stories about Phaedra are found in various sources from antiquity, including poetry and 3 plays. The earliest surviving accounts of her story are “Phaedra” a play by Sophocles, “Hippolytus Veiled” and “Hippolytus the Wreath Bearer” two plays by Euripides. Unfortunately, sources have been lost and we only have fragments to learn from.
The majority of what we know about Phaedra is from later sources including “Phaedra” written by the Roman philosopher Seneca before 54 CE and Ovid’s collection of poems called “The Heroides” written between c. 25 and 16 BC (the exact dates are unknown). These sources provide us more details about Phaedra and her story, and while these various sources all tell different versions of the same story, they all share the same general structure.
Phaedra’s story has also been adapted most famously by Jean Baptiste Racine, a French dramatist, in 1676, first performed in Paris at the Hotel du Bourgogne. It was originally called “Phédre et Hippolyte” but it is now known simply as “Phédre”. Sarah Kane, a British playwright, also wrote an adaptation titled “Phaedra’s Love”, first performed in 1996 at London’s Gate Theatre.
Euripides’ Hippolytus:
Because “Hippolytus Veiled” and “Hippolytus the Wreath Bearer” are fragments of plays, scholars have put together three similar versions of Euripedes’ Hippolytus; they all have the same relative ending but the details and cast of characters is slightly different. This myth is what all subsequent works are based on. It was first produced for the City of Dionysia of Athens in 428 BC.
Euripides tends to explore the role of women in Grecian society. When you read his plays it becomes clear that he seems to be especially focused on perverse or monstrous women (remember Medea?) and Phaedra’s lust for her stepson represents a perversion of her duties as a wife. Regardless of whether a fifth-century Greek audience would have considered a sexual relationship between mother and stepson incest, we can very clearly see that Phaedra’s lust for Hippolytus and her attempt at seducing him would have been seen as a violation of Theseus’ trust.
Phaedra’s corruption extends beyond her desire: during this time period, a wife’s principal duties were maintaining the house and raising children, and Phaedra’s hysteria prevents her from performing these tasks. Even her physical state exposes her misconduct: when she comes out of the palace in scene two, her hair is left down and uncovered, which we can assume from her nurse’s reaction, would have been considered immodest in fifth-century Greece. Euripides has essentially presented us with both a victim and a victimizer, which makes Phaedra an incredibly complex character.
The Myth
In one versions of Euripedes’ Hippolytus, Theseus is the King of Athens who has been re-married to Phaedra, after tensions settle between Crete and Athens. She falls in love with her stepson Hippolytus, Theseus’ son from his first marriage with Queen Hippolyta, and sets out to seduce him. Hippolytus rejects her advances, (although it is unclear why Hippolytus rejects her, besides the fact that she is his stepmother) but Phaedra is humiliated when Hippolytus refuses her.
Taking her revenge, Phaedra writes Theseus a letter accusing Hippolytus of raping her. This angers Theseus, and since he is the son of Poseidon, he asks him for one of the three wishes he has been granted; he orders the death of Hippolytus. Poseidon, the god of the sea, agrees and Hippolytus is dashed against the rocks when his horses are frightened by a sea monster. In the end, Phaedra’s treachery is somehow discovered although because sources are fragmentary, we do not know exactly how, and to avoid what would have been a more painful, shame-filled death, she decides to kill herself.
In a 2nd version, essentially the same thing happens, and Phaedra is plagued with guilt and to atone for her actions she kills herself.
In a 3rd version of Euripides’ Hippolytus, Hippolytus has rejected Aphrodite so that he could remain a virginal devotee to Artemis, the Greek goddess of the hunt, the wilderness, and chastity. Aphrodite then takes her revenge by having Phaedra fall in love with him, and the rest is the same.
Based on Euripides “Hippolytus”, translated by David Kovacs, lines 1-1462
Seneca’s Phaedra:
When Seneca wrote this play, it was written in Latin, in verse; the most used and well known translation from Latin into English is written by Frank Justus Miller in 1907 and any quotes below are from his version. It influenced drama over two millennia, influencing Shakespeare and 16th and 17th century French drama; as well as Jean Racine’s and Sarah Kane’s adaptations. (see below) It was first performed in 1474, at the Palais de Cardinal Saint George in France and in Rome in 1486, where it was performed in Latin. Seneca’s version is still performed today, in modern times; the most recent production was in 2013, at the Getty Villa in California.
The Story
Hippolytus is organizing a boar hunt. Phaedra appears in front of the palace bemoaning her love for Hippolytus; her husband Theseus has been gone for years on a trip to kidnap Persephone and, you know, a woman has needs. She ignores the advice of her aged nurse to park the lust.
Meanwhile it turns out Hippolytus is no fan of women, (remember, he is a loyal follower of Diana, and wants to remain pure). He brutally rejects Phaedra, vowing to remain away from the palace until his father, Theseus returns, and she threatens to kill herself. In desperation, her nurse appeals to Diana (the Roman Artemis) to soften Hippolytus’ heart and make him fall for Phaedra. Hippolytus returns and the nurse gives it her best shot, telling him to live a little. He responds by saying that living out in the wild, away from the impure influence of women, is the best life. The nurse, mildly offended, says, why blame a whole gender for the actions of Phaedra?
NURSE
Seneca, “Phaedra” 1917 564
Why make the crime of few the blame of all?
Phaedra appears on cue and swoons. Hippolytus revives her, and she plays a more tactical game than in the 5th century Athenian versions discussed above. She suggests Hippolytus take his long-absent father’s place on the throne. Hippolytus finds this idea attractive and agrees. Only then does Phaedra suggest that he should fill his Dad’s role in other ways as well. Hippolytus says “Ew” and rejects her. He wants to kill her for her crime; he feels guilty because he thinks that he is responsible for tempting Phaedra by agreeing to act as regent. He sends her away.
PHAEDRA
Seneca “Phaedra” 1917 640-643
‘Tis burning love scorches my maddened heart. A hot fire glows deep in my inmost vitals and hides darkly in my veins, as when nimble flames dart through deep-set timbers.
Phaedra’s nurse hatches a plot with Phaedra to punish him by accusing him of raping her. Phaedra is distraught by the time Theseus returns, and he’s wondering why wives always feel like killing themselves when husbands return home. The nurse says that Phaedra will never tell, but she points to a sword Hippolytus has left around, saying vaguely, “you’d never guess what people you trust get up to when you’re away kidnapping girls in the Underworld”. Theseus, ever the jealous husband, flies into a rage and asks Neptune (the Roman Poseidon) to fulfill one of his wishes, and Theseus asks him to kill Hippolytus.
In a typically Roman, detail by detail description, a messenger relates how Hippolytus was ripped apart after his limbs got entangled in the wheels of his chariot when his horses were frightened by a sea bull. For good measure, the messenger then describes in vivid detail how the various parts of Hippolytus were dragged through the forest. Now that’s entertainment!
Theseus is sad to hear this, Phaedra reprimands him for his cruelty and turns to the mangled corpse—because in Roman theatre you put those things on stage—and cries, “Ah, woe is me!” (1170) She reveals her love for Hippolytus to Theseus, falls on her sword, and dies.
Based on Seneca’s “Phaedra”, translated by Frank Justus Miller, 1917 Lines 1-1279
Phaedra hands to her nurse the letter accusing her step-son Hippolytus
Naples National Archaeological Museum, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
Racine’s Phédre
Jean Baptiste Racine wrote the most well known adaptation of Seneca’s Phaedra, written in 1676. It is an entirely different plot based on the same Greek myth, filled with more characters and different reasons for the actions of the characters. It first opened in Paris on January 1st, 19677. It was most recently adapted into an opera by Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki, in 2014.
The Story
At the opening of the play, Hippolytus states his desire to leave in search of his father Theseus, who has been gone for six months. He reveals his real reason; an illicit love for Aricia, the sole surviving member of the royal house of Athens, vanquished by his father. So the play starts with illicit love being on Hippolytus’ part instead of Phaedra’s.
In the meantime, Phaedra is near death, moaning about her love for Hippolytus—which has not been caused by a curse from a goddess, as in Euripedes’ Hippolytus. She consults her nurse, as was the case in Euripides’ version, but then news arrives that Theseus has died. The nurse suggests that she marry Hippolytus, if only to protect the interests of her infant son.
Meanwhile, Aricia declares her love for Hippolytus and he arrives to tell her the feeling is mutual. But then stepmom arrives to spoil the vibe, going into a trance-like state overcome by emotion and declares her passion for Hippolytus. Coming out of the fugue state she senses she might have overstepped a line, news arrives that Theseus might be alive.
Phaedra pleads with Hippolytus to take the throne with her. But then her husband comes home; Theseus arrives to a cold reception. Phaedra is afraid Hippolytus will reveal her love, and Hippolytus is afraid to reveal his own love for Aricia. Phaedra’s nurse comes up with a cunning plan. She tells Theseus that Hippolytus has sexually assaulted his wife. In a rage, Theseus banishes Hippolytus, as in the original play by Euripides. But the sub-plot intrudes as Hippolytus pleads with his Dad, telling him he’s in love with Aricia.
Theseus wants Hippolytus dead. Phaedra, feeling responsible (for a change), intends to tell Theseus of her love for Hippolytus. Then she finds out Hippolytus declared his love for Aricia. Jealous, she decides to keep quiet and leave him to his fate.
Phaedra
Yes, he loves. I cannot doubt it.
This wild, untameable Hippolytus,
Who scorn’d to be admired, whom lovers’ sighs,
Wearied , this tiger, whom I fear to rouse,
Fawns on a hand that has subdued his pride:
Aricia has found entrance to his heart.
Racine’s Phédre, 2008 Act IV, Scene VI
Theseus follows his son and discovers this whole Aricia-love thing might be the real deal. He wants to question Oenone, the nurse, to find out the truth, but, conveniently, she’s drowned herself. Then, more bad news; Hippolytus has been killed while…fighting a sea monster? He was winning, apparently, until the damned thing thrashed its tail and smashed Hippolytus’ chariot against the rocks. Quel dommage. Phaedra fesses up to Theseus about her whole adolescent lust thing and takes a draft of poison to rid the world of her impurity. Theseus feels sort of bad about all this. So he pardons Aricia in a gesture to his now dead son.
Based on Racine’s “Phédre” Translated by Robert Bruce Boswell, 2008 Acts I-V
Sarah Kane: “Phaedra’s Love”
Phaedra is also conceptualized in a modern context, with Sarah Kane’s play, “Phaedra’s Love”. The play was written in 1996 and performed at London’s Gate Theatre. It is adapted from Seneca’s “Phaedra”; it centers more on Hippolytus and, unlike its predecessor, it is incredibly graphic and all violence occurs on stage. When Seneca and Racine’s version are staged, details of the violence are described by the Chorus or a messenger character, the audience sees none of the gory details. Kane also introduces Strophe, a new character, who does not exist in any earlier version. Kane also dispenses with the side stories of the nurse and Aricia. The gods are completely absent, so none of the characters have been forced against their will into their actions, unlike in Seneca’s version where Diana (Artemis) gets herself involved and Euripides’ version where Aphrodite curses Hippolytus to fall in love with his stepmother.
The Story
The setting is a modern era, and when the play opens, Hippolytus lazes on the sofa, surrounded by underwear, candy wrappers and electronics. Hippolytus is clinically depressed: he spends all his time sitting around, his main activities include sex and watching TV. Somehow he is able to find women willing to have sex with him because although he is not particularly attractive, he is a member of the royal family which holds a certain prestige. He is incredibly cynical about his status as a member of the royal family of Athens and believes his life has no purpose.
Kane’s play depicts Phaedra’s unlikely love for her stepson: Hippolytus goes out of his way to say hurtful things to her in his disdain and goading her to hate him. But even telling Phaedra that he has had sex with her daughter Strophe is not enough to deter her love for him.
Phaedra: You’re difficult. Moody, cynical, bitter, fat, decadent, spoilt. You stay in bed all day then watch TV all night, you crash around this house with sleep in your eyes, and not a thought for anyone. You’re a pain. I adore you.
Kane, Phaedra’s Love, 1996 Scene 4 page 79.
Phaedra has been by herself since Theseus left on their wedding night after having sex with Strophe (as Hippolytus so kindly informs her), and she does not expect him to return. Eventually, overcome by Hippolytus’s coldness towards her, she kills herself, but as an act of revenge leaves Theseus a note accusing Hippolytus of raping her, even though their only sexual contact was a consensual act of oral sex that Phaedra initiated.
Hippolytus falsely pleads guilty to rape in order to escape his restlessness, and the crowd turns against him. He is visited in jail by a priest who tries to talk some sense into him and get him to plead not guilty. When the priest fails to convince Hippolytus, who scorns both God and the monarchy, the priest gets on his knees to perform oral sex. Theseus arrives just in time to seek justice for Phaedra, disguising himself in the crowd for Hippolytus’ public trial.
As one might expect, Kane’s play ends badly, Theseus murders Hippolytus , Strophe is raped and murdered by Theseus for publicly defending Hippolytus, and Theseus slits his own throat when he realises what he has done, not having recognised Strophe until it was too late, she had also disguised herself in the crowd so as to publicly defend Hippolytus.
Hippolytus meets a gruesome end: he is half-strangled, castrated by the crowd, who then toss his genitals onto a barbecue. He is then disemboweled by Theseus and his innards also chucked on the barbecue. One might expect Hippolytus to die rather quickly, yet he lives long enough for Theseus to kill himself and for Hippolytus to make a witty comment before dying.
The beautiful thing about multiple treatments and adaptations of the same story, is that authors and readers find new ways to connect and understand the characters. Phaedra is depicted several different ways and not always in the best light, yet she was frequently depicted in art that was hung in Roman homes as an example of an all-consuming love that should be viewed with sympathy. One myth, 4 different versions and a myriad of literature, music, film and art all influenced by this one woman and her story, even though she isn’t even technically our title character.
Based on Kane’s “Phaedra’s Love” 1996 Scenes 1-8
Works Cited
Armstrong, Rebecca. (2006). Cretan Women (Oxford Classical Monographs). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dupree, A. (2017). Phaedra: Empathy for a Disloyal Wife in Roman Painting and Poetry.
Euripides. Children of Heracles. Hippolytus. Andromache. Hecuba. Edited and translated by David Kovacs. Loeb Classical Library 484. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995.
Fantham, Elaine. (1995). Women in the classical world : Image and text (Acls humanities e-book). New York: Oxford University Press.
Jacobson, Howard. (1974). Ovid’s Heroidos. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Kane, S. (2002). Phaedra’s love. London: Methuen Drama.
Racine, Phaedra. Translated by Robert Bruce Boswell. 2008
Seneca. Tragedies . Translated by Miller, Frank Justus. Loeb Classical Library Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1917.
Sophocles, Pearson, A. C., Jebb, R. C., & Headlam, W. G. (1917). The fragments of Sophocles (Vol. 1). Cambridge: At the University Press.
Image Sources
Phaedra and her nurse:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Cabanel#/media/File:Alexandre_Cabanel_Ph%C3%A8dre.jpg
Frontispiece:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Racine_-_Ph%C3%A8dre_Act5_sc6_1677_-_c%C3%A9sar.jpg
Hippolytus and Phaedra, marble sarcophagus: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedra_(Seneca)#/media/Filehttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Racine_-_Ph%C3%A8dre_Act5_sc6_1677_-_c%C3%A9sar.jpg:Hippolytus_Phaedra_Louvre_Ma_2294.jpg
Phaedra hands her nurse the letter:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phaedra_letter_MAN_Napoli_Inv114322.jpg
Hippolytus and Phaedra, fresco:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hippolytus_and_Phaedra,_fresco_from_Pompeii.JPG
Phaedra and Hippolytus:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jozef_Geirnaert_-_Phaedra_and_Hippolytus.jpg
Women in Antiquity 
