https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circe_Offering_the_Cup_to_Odysseus.jpg
Circe has been depicted in a variety of ways in mythology, with many portrayals highlighting negative aspects of her nature. As a result, her characterization has ranged from that of a skilled sorceress to a wicked temptress. The present article will examine the ways in which Circe was villainized throughout antiquity by comparing her earliest representation in the Odyssey to the later Roman texts, the Aeneid and the Metamorphoses, three stories in which she is most well-known. Specifically, I will focus on comparing later interpretations of Circe to Homer’s, as her representation in the Odyssey presented her in a far more positive light than in later literature within the Roman and Renaissance eras. Additionally, I will provide an analysis on the villainization of powerful female figures in antiquity as a method of reinforcing social hierarchies and delegitimizing women’s roles in society. Finally, I will discuss how the process of adopting labels such as monsters, witches, and prostitutes was used to delegitimize women, as well as how Circe’s representation in antiquity and the Renaissance fit into each of these categories.
Circe’s Background and Story in Odyssey
Circe (Kirke) is the daughter of the sun god Helios and the Oceanid nymph Perse and is also recognized as the sister of Aeetes (Od. 10.135). Though she is most often referred to as a minor deity, certain accounts have also described her as a nymph, a witch, or an enchantress (Yarnall, 1994). Circe is most known for her association with the island of Aeaea (Aiaia), where she dwells with her nymph companions. It is on the island of Aeaea that Odysseus first encounters Circe on his journey back to Ithaca, as described in Homer’s Odyssey. Upon their arrival, Odysseus describes the minor goddess as “fair-tressed Circe, a dread goddess of human speech” (Od. 10.135), perhaps inferring her tendencies to dabble in sorcery and transmutation while clarifying her ability to communicate with mortals.
User: Marsyas [CC BY-SA 2.5, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.5/%5D Source: Wikimedia Commons https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Circ%C3%A9_%26_Ulysse.jpg
By the time Odysseus and his men had landed on Aeaea, they were in anguish, having been completely drained by their encounters with the Cyclops and the mighty Laestrygonians, which had taken the lives of many of their comrades. After feasting on the available resources and regaining their energy, Odysseus sent his men to further investigate the island. During their search, they came upon Circe’s residence, which was described as being “built of polished stone” and surrounded by “mountain wolves and lions, whom Circe herself had bewitched; for she gave them evil drugs” (Od. 10.210). These animals are further explained to be “dread monsters” (Od. 10.215), suggesting a connection between these beasts and the previously described dread goddess, Circe. As Odysseus’s men approached Circe’s home, they heard her “singing with a sweet voice” while creating a woven piece of some sort (Od. 10.220). She quickly invited them inside and seated each one, feeding them a concoction of ingredients with which she had “mixed baneful drugs” (Od. 10.235). After they had consumed her feast, Circe then used her wand to transform each one of them into pigs and “penned them in the sties” (Od. 10.240).
After Odysseus had caught word of what happened, he quickly rushed to the house to see for himself but was stopped by Hermes, who provided him with a “potent herb” (Od. 10.285) that would ward off Circe’s powers. Odysseus followed Hermes’s instructions and was invited into Circe’s home in a manner similar to his men. However, when she had attempted to use her wand, Odysseus raised his sword “feigning intent to kill” (Yarnall, 1994, p. 8) causing Circe to withdraw, clasping his knees in a “primal gesture of surrender” (p. 8). Odysseus then made Circe swear an oath to not do any further harm; she obliges and takes him to her bed (Yarnall, 1994)
Later, after Circe had bathed and doted upon Odysseus’s every need, she agreed – without hesitation – to transform his men back to human form, making them “younger than they were before, and far comelier and taller to look upon” (Od. 10.395). Thus, from this point forward, she has been transformed from the dread goddess to a “beautiful goddess” (Od. 10.400) and instead uses her “formidable powers beneficently” (Yarnall, 1994, p. 9). This is further observed when, after a full year of Circe attending to every need of Odysseus and his men, Odysseus decides to reembark on his journey and Circe provides him with helpful information that will aid him on his safe return. This is the final appearance of Circe in Book 10 of the Odyssey, though she appears again in Book 12 when Odysseus and his men return to her island to properly bury one of their comrades (Yarnall, 1994)
When Odysseus resisted against Circe’s magic, Circe almost immediately took on a submissive position, suggesting a “play of power” (Yarnall, 1994, p.8). She had become infatuated with Odysseus, and therefore no longer posed a threat to him and his men. The belief that women were a dangerous sexually driven force that needed to be controlled was a common theme throughout Greek literature. This idea was implicitly conveyed in the story of Hesiod and the first woman (Ormand, 2008). Ormand explains that women “pose a risk to men specifically because men must resist their charms” (Ormand, 2008, p. 28) and that a “real man controlled his desires, his person, his wife, and his household” (p. 47). Thus, even though Circe may be an immortal deity, she is still forced to succumb to gender roles present within antiquity. This is in contrast to the episode wherein Odysseus tells Circe of his request to return on his journey, in which he takes the submissive position and “besought her by her knees” (Od. 10.480), suggesting a reversal of the roles and a sense of “mutual trust and surrender” (Yarnall, 1994, p.15). To his request, Circe helps him, saying that she does not want to keep him there against his will; she is neither upset nor possessive, though one might expect her to be after her devotion to taking care of him and his men for the past year. While not the perfect representation of equality between the sexes, Circe is framed in a mostly positive light within the Odyssey, and becomes a figure praised for her knowledge who assisted Odysseus on his quest. Later depictions were not quite as generous or fair.
Circe in the Aeneid
Much of the first half of Aeneid follows a story similar to that of the Odyssey, although there are some stark differences. In the Odyssey, Circe plays a crucial role in assisting Odysseus on his journey back to Ithaca by instructing him on how to reach the Underworld and, following his return to Aeaea, how to avoid the Sirens. As such, Circe “serves the double function of antagonist and helper” (Aresi, 2021, p. 171) by first impeding Odysseus’s quest through transforming his men to swine, and then later aiding him with knowledge ensuring his safe return. In the Aeneid, however, Circe is reduced to more of a background character and “remains a part of the scenery against which the author develops the story of Aeneas’ wanderings” (Stoffelen, 1994, p. 123).
In this story, Odysseus and his men merely pass by Aeaea where Circe can be heard singing her “ceaseless song” (Aen. 7.5-7.25) while she weaves on the loom. This is juxtaposed with the next lines that depict the “wrath of lions, rebels to their linked chains and roaring all night long” (Aen. 7.5-7.25) where it is described that “the dread goddess” made men “bade to wear the mouths and maws of beasts in Circe’s thrall” (Aen. 7.5-7.25). Thus, this once beautiful scene takes a terrifying twist and Circe is then portrayed in “conventional patriarchal constructs of womanhood: domestic work, sweet singing, an intoxicating scent, but also perversion, danger, magic, all in a single scene” (Aresi, 2021, p.171-172). Later, in Book 7 of the Aeneid, Virgil tells the tale of Circe’s apparent jealousy towards King Picus and his bride (Stoffelen, 1994). Upon Picus’ refusal to leave his partner for Circe, she transforms him into a bird, “raining o’er him potent poison-dew” (Aen. 7.189). This story is further expanded upon in Metamorphoses.
In Virgil’s depiction of Circe, she comes to be represented as “purely negative, a witch stripped of charm” (Yarnall, 1994, p.107). Furthermore, her role in assisting Odysseus on his journey becomes replaced by other characters in the Aeneid; thus, her appearance simply characterizes “the archetypal feminine projected as evil and then evaded, safely skirted by” (Yarnall, 1994, p.107).While the Odyssey portrays Circe’s seductive nature as representing “the seduction of knowledge” (Aresi, 2021, p.163) and challenges the traditional stereotype of women in antiquity as dangerous and sexually promiscuous, the Aeneid carelessly casts Circe aside as a threat towards men and one that should be avoided at all costs. In Virgil’s portrayal of Circe, “seduction and knowledge are intentionally set apart from each other” and “only the former is granted to Circe” while “the latter, instead, becomes a prerogative of men” (p.163). Therefore, this version of Circe “has nothing to tell, and her charming song…is reduced to the risk of mere (sexual) seduction” (p.171). From this story, it is clear that most, if not all, of Circe’s positive traits have been replaced by negative stereotypes of woman that promulgated the Roman era. Furthermore, this dark and haunting portrayal of Circe strays further away from Homer’s original depiction, resulting in a character that lacks the captivating qualities that made her so intriguing in the first place.
Circe in Metamorphoses
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Circe_Invidiosa_-_John_William_Waterhouse.jpg
As with the Aeneid, Ovid’s Metamorphoses incorporates elements of Homer’s Odyssey while including new stories involving familiar deities. Circe makes numerous appearances, one of which involves the previously mentioned tale of Picus’ transformation into a bird, but for the purposes of this article, I will pay special attention to the story involving Glaucus and Scylla. In this myth, Glaucus, a prophetic sea-God, seeks out Circe for help in convincing Scylla, a once beautiful nymph, to return supposed his romantic inclinations through the use of sorcery. To his request, Circe says, “you might do better, to court one who is willing, one who wants your love, and feels a like desire” (Met. 14.1-74). She further goes on to express her love for him and explains that she “wish[es] only to be yours” (Met. 14.1-74). Glaucus quickly turns her down, stating that “the trees will sooner grow in ocean waves…than I shall change my love for my graceful! Scylla” (Met. 14.1-74). In response, Circe is described to be in a state of “jealous rage”, and she proceeds to poison the waters in which Scylla normally bathed, “polluting it with monster-breeding drugs” (Met. 14.1-74). Later, Scylla enters the waters and is surprised to see “her loins defiled with barking shapes…boisterous canine jaws,” lending to the common representation of Scylla as a sea-monster (Met. 14.1-74).
In this story, Circe is very much portrayed as a “an ordinary woman scorned” (Yarnall, 1994, p.118), creating an image that suggests she would go to extreme lengths to enact revenge against those who reject her advances. Furthermore, Ovid’s Circe is depicted as a highly emotional, greedy, and irrational figure and thus possesses few of the characteristics that originally had defined her character in Homer’s Odyssey. In the Odyssey, Circe utilizes her abilities to transform men to swine, though this act can be interpreted more so as a “determination to show off her divine powers” (Yarnall, 1994, p.118) rather than a villainous act fueled by pure spite towards those who she deems have wronged her in some way. In my opinion, Circe’s transformation of Odysseus’ men served as a way to assert her control and power in, what I believe she considered, a light-hearted manner. In contrast, Circe’s portrayal in Metamorphoses further leans into gender roles present within antiquity, which painted women as being “incapable of not exercising their sexual charms” often resulting in disastrous consequences (Walcot, 1984, p.39).
The idea of recasting powerful female figures as villainous creatures was a common theme throughout the Roman era and is in stark contrast with the portrayal of women in Homer’s writings. Although the portrayal of Circe in the Odyssey certainly adheres to a system of prescribed gender roles in which women were expected, in some way, to be subservient to men, Homer also tended to focus on the positive aspects of female figures (Arthur, 1973). After Circe’s initial misuse of her powers to turn Odysseus’ men into pigs, she develops a connection with Odysseus and demonstrates her kind-heartedness in caring for him and his men. This can be further observed when she later provides Odysseus with crucial knowledge that will aid him on his journey home, an act of pure selflessness that did not benefit Circe in any way. Therefore, in opposition to Ovid and Vergil, Homer’s Circe represents the celebration of the important roles that women do play in society, rather than “drawing attention to their handicaps or inabilities” (Arthur, 1973, p.14).
The Delegitimization of Women in Antiquity and Later Interpretations of Circe
As previously mentioned, powerful female figures in antiquity were frequently portrayed as dangerous beings who needed to be held under some form of control, based on the patriarchal idea that they were incapable of self-restraint and thus posed a risk to society. Furthermore, the idea that women could play a larger role in society became a threat to the established social hierarchy (Martin, 2013). If women were capable of performing the same roles as men in a sufficient – or even more effective – manner, then there would be no need for the patriarchal system in place. Therefore, strategies were put in place to delegitimize and demonize women in order to keep them in a position of inferiority while emphasizing the need for a male-dominated society (Martin, 2013). Consequently, myths in antiquity adopted several methods of delegitimizing female figures through accusatory labels including monsters, witches, and prostitutes.
Monstrous Women
In mythology, a monstrous character was intended to represent a transgression of a society’s moral and social ideals (Martin, 2013). In this sense monsters served as the antithesis of all that the Greeks and Romans stood for and thus were characterized by a lack of restraint in taming their inclinations to bring harm upon others. Interestingly, though perhaps not surprising, a large majority of monsters in antiquity happened to also be women. Some notable examples include: Medusa, a woman who was raped and was thus punished for engaging in premarital sex by turning all men who looked at her into stone; Scylla, a previously-mentioned character whose lower half was transformed into a entanglement of snake-like dogs with sharp teeth; and Chimera; a fire-breathing lion with a goat extending from her back and a snake for a tail – these are only a few, among many, many others (Top Ten: Most Terrifying Monsters, Murgatroyd, 2007). Furthermore, most of these stories revolved around the monstrous character’s need to devour mortal men, much in the way that women were described to have an insatiable sexual appetite that would exhaust men’s resources. Therefore, the characterization of women as monsters may have further reinforced the idea that they were sexual predators and thus, posed a danger to society.
Witches
Although Circe was not regarded as a monster, her acts in the Aeneid and Metamorphoses undoubtedly characterize her in a similar way by implying that she is unable to practice restraint in her magical abilities and thereby poses a threat to those around her. Moreover, her portrayal as a witch and an enchantress throughout the Renaissance certainly leans into comparable values. In 1531, the first edition of the Emblemata of Andreas Alciato became quite popular for its ability to convey clear and concise interpretations of classical ideas (Yarnall, 1994). More importantly, these emblems often served as a way to “communicate moralistic messages” through visual images and brief texts (Yarnall, 1994, p.134). In 1586, Geffrey Whitney adapted components of Alciato’s emblems and introduced new sources in his own collection of emblems titled Choice of Emblemes (Yarnall, 1994). Circe is featured in both of these collections in Alciato’s Emblem 76 as well as Whitneys’ Emblem 82. Circe is portrayed in both depictions as towering above her victims, who cower at her feet, implying that she is a symbol of domination and power. In Emblem 76, the message accompanying the image of Circe explains that “the powers of Circe…were so great that she turned many men into strange monsters” and furthermore, that “whoever loves her, loses the reason of his mind,” (Alciato, 1531). Furthermore, Whitney’s emblem displays Circe surrounded by Ulysses men who she has converted into animals, wielding a staff aimed at a pig (Whitney, 1586/1866). Both emblems indicate a proclivity to portray women as a dangerous force, one that is particularly disastrous in the case of Circe due to her capacity for practicing magic.
Source: https://www.mun.ca/alciato/whit/w082.html
Emblem 76
One ought to beware of prostitutes
“It is said the powers of Circe, offspring to the Sun, were so great that she turned many men into strange monsters. Picus, tamer of horses, is proof, likewise biform Scylla, and the Ithacans, pigs after they drank the wine. Circe, by her famous name, discloses the prostitute, and whoever loves her, loses the reason of his mind.”
From Alciato’s Book of Emblems, accessed at https://www.mun.ca/alciato/e076.html
The Renaissance era is said to be an “age of transition between two worlds, the medieval and modern” (Nugent, 1972, p.69). During the Middle Ages, earlier myths from antiquity were largely seen as symbolic; however, the beliefs of the Renaissance era took things more seriously. Additionally, Christianity became the more prominent religion during this period, and anything perceived to be in contradiction to its beliefs was frequently ignored or misrepresented (Yarnall, 1994). This fueled a fascination with witchcraft during the Renaissance period, culminating in the Salem witch trials, which resulted in the execution of several women for alleged occult activities (Beh-Yehuda, 1980). Furthermore, it resulted in a witch-hunting fixation in which women were “singled out as the main victims,” and “witches were used as scapegoats for political, social, and economic purposes” (Ben-Yehuda, 1980, p.2,7). In 1580, Jean Bodin published a book titled On the Demon-Mania of Witches with the intention of conveying the real threat that witchcraft posed to society. As explained by Hughes, Bodin believed that mythologies surrounding Circe were far from allegorical and condemned any interpretations that characterized her as such (Hughes, 1943). Furthermore, Bodin believed that only demons held the capability of transforming men at will and therefore, regarded Circe as “a witch in league with Satan” (Hughes, 1943, p.395).
The title “witch” was not necessarily attributed to those who explicitly practised magic, but might have instead been assigned to singers, chanters, wise women, purifiers, or just elderly women (Ripat, 2016, p.104). Additionally, the literary connotations behind this word were often used to degrade these women as being “old, foul, drunk, and ridiculous in their claims to superior knowledge” (Ripat, 2016, p.105). Furthermore, women cast as witches were said to be representative of society “insofar as they serve as negative examples and so cautionary tales about proper female behaviour” (Ripat, 2016, p.105). As a result, identifying certain women as witches may have appeared as a way to diminish their talents and knowledge while also seeking to reduce their sexual attraction by associating them to old, filthy figures. Similar ideologies applied to other Renaissance pieces starring various female figures from antiquity such as Medea and Hecate, the latter of whom was featured as the ruler of the Three Witches in Shakespeare’s Macbeth (Guj, 1986). Therefore, it seems that this label was especially convenient for usage towards women in antiquity possessing some form of magic powers.
Prostitutes
Along with being portrayed as a witch throughout the Renaissance, Circe was also occasionally referred to as a prostitute, as in the case of the above-mentioned Alciato’s Emblem 76 which is titled with the motto “One ought to beware of prostitutes” (Alciato, 1531). This mischaracterization persisted even into the 20th century when James Joyce dedicated a chapter of Ulysses to Circe, which modernized her character as a brothel owner who instructs a man to get on all fours so that he can be ridden like a horse (Joyce, 1922). When considering the connotations surrounding the labeling of one as being a prostitute (or brothel owner) and sexually promiscuous, there are several things that need to be taken into account. Although, prostitution was legal and regulated throughout the Greek and Roman eras, being labeled as such did hold its own negative connotations. The categorization of an individual as being a prostitute in antiquity meant that that individual would be forced to surrender their full citizenship rights (Ormand, 2008).
This meant that women who engaged in these settings as prostitutes or companions in brothels would have, in most cases, surrendered their legal rights, with little guarantee of justice in cases of rape or violence against them. Additionally, many women in antiquity were often retroactively labeled as prostitutes based on irrelevant characteristics such as their behaviour or appearance in public forums, leading to the mischaracterization of many women as prostitutes (Kennedy, 2015). Therefore, the classification of a woman as a prostitute may have served to further delegitimize women while simultaneously inferring the consequences that could follow from their sexual promiscuity.
“The demonization of sexuality of women reflects a strategy of delegitimization. The patriarchal system projects a distorted image of women in order to punish all those attitudes which androcentric discourse considered transgressive.”
(Martin, 2013, para. 7)
In examining post-antique receptions of Circe, it is evident that many tactics were employed to delegitimize her character and retrospectively portray her as a dangerous entity that should be avoided. The characterization of Circe as possessing monstrous-like qualities due to her lack of restraint in withholding her magical capabilities leans into the stereotype that women are incapable of not exercising their sexual appetite (Walcot, 1984). Moreover, during the Renaissance, Circe was frequently depicted as a witch in order to de-emphasize her sexuality and highlight her perceived capacity to harm others, which ultimately diminished any appeal she might have had and subsequently reduced male interest in her story. Furthermore, the idea of Circe being cast as a prostitute sought to accentuate her sexual promiscuity, thus highlighting the risk that she posed towards men. All in all, the implications of these labels seem to diminish any fascination with Circe’s character and story while reinforcing patriarchal notions of how women should behave. As a result, the portrayal of Circe by Homer, once admired for her intelligence and wisdom, has now been overshadowed by distorted representations that reduce her to the familiar, negative stereotype of villainous women.
Conclusion
An article by Walcot explains that there are three observations that can be made concerning why women were kept in a position of inferiority during the classical Greece era, including: 1) the close relationship between Athenian men and their honour; 2) a man’s duty to protect and defend the women in their lives; and 3) the value of prevention over a remedy (Walcot, 1984). As a result, several safeguards were put in place to maintain women in this position, such as early arranged marriages and restrictions on women’s presence in the public sphere. With regards to Walcot’s latter point on prevention, the villanization of women in antiquity may have also served as a safety mechanism in limiting women’s roles within society. In this respect, villainized depictions of women in literature, such as Circe in the Aeneid and Metamorphoses, may have served as a cautionary tale to women who disobeyed the rules of the patriarchal system. Consequently, women who read or heard of these stories, as well as the discourse surrounding them, might have accordingly adjusted their own behaviour to fit within the perceived expectations of a male-dominated society. In my opinion, I believe that this would have been an effective method in shaping the behaviour of women to adhere to societal standards given the negative labels and connotations they could have faced if they failed to comply.
To summarize, it is apparent that Circe’s character represents more than a wicked figure motivated by her lust and disdain towards men. In the Odyssey, Circe played a key role in helping Odysseus on his journey back to Ithaca by instructing him on how to reach the Underworld as well as informing him on to avoid the Sirens upon his return to Aeaea. Virgil, on the other hand, limited Circe’s involvement by bringing in other characters to aid Odysseus, instead casting Circe as a villainous figure to be avoided at all costs. Furthermore, Ovid’s portrayal of Circe introduced the notion of her as a woman scorned, one who would do harm to others if they acted against her wishes or desires.
The reason for this discrepancy within her interpretations may be attributed to increasing patriarchal ideals which aimed to keep women in a position of inferiority. From this perspective, the concept that women could provide useful knowledge or fulfil roles previously occupied by men posed a threat to the established social hierarchy. As a result, villainizing women can be viewed as an especially effective technique of delegitimizing their place in society, while upholding the values of a male-dominated system. Additionally, stories like Circe’s may have served as a warning to women in antiquity about the implications of deviating from gender standards, both in terms of catastrophic outcomes and how they would be perceived by society. Therefore, when reading stories in antiquity featuring so-called villainous women, I believe it is crucial to analyze whether these characters were genuinely evil or if they were part of a wider false narrative manufactured by the patriarchy to keep women subordinate to male-dominated norms.
Closing Thoughts
Personally, I believe that Circe was an inspiring figure in mythology and should be understood in the same way that Homer had originally depicted her, as a clever and compassionate woman who knew her worth and asserted her authority over men while maintaining admirable traits of kindness and affection. Overall, the complex and multifaceted portrayal of Circe in the Odyssey and later writings serve as a demonstration of the diversity of female characters in mythology and emphasizes the value of looking deeper into their stories beyond surface-level stereotypes and assumptions.
References
Primary Sources (translated):
Alciato, Andreas (1531). Book of Emblems. Translated by Memorial University of Newfoundland. Accessed online at https://www.mun.ca/alciato/index.html
Homer (8th c. BC). Odyssey. Translated by A.T. Murray. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Accessed at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D10
Joyce, James. (1922). Ulysses. Shakespeare and Company. Accessed online at https://www.online-literature.com/james_joyce/ulysses/15/
Ovid (8 CE). Metamorphoses. Translated by Brookes More. Cornhill Publishing. Accessed at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D14%3Acard%3D1
Virgil (29-19 BC). Aeneid. Translated by Theodore C. Williams. Houghton Mifflin Co. Accessed at http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0054%3Abook%3D7%3Acard%3D170
Whitney, Geffrey (1586). Choice of Emblemes. Translated by Memorial University of Newfoundland. Accessed online at https://www.mun.ca/alciato/wcomm.html
Secondary Sources:
Aresi, L. (2021). THE HIDDEN SEDUCTION: CIRCE AND THE SIRENS IN THE AENEID. Vergilius (1959-), 67, 161–182. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27078497
Arthur, M. B. (1973). EARLY GREECE: THE ORIGINS OF THE WESTERN ATTITUDE TOWARD WOMEN. Arethusa, 6(1), 7–58. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26307462
Ben-Yehuda, N. (1980). The European Witch Craze of the 14th to 17th Centuries: A Sociologist’s Perspective. American Journal of Sociology, 86(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1086/227200
Guj, L. (1986). “Macbeth” and the seeds of time. Shakespeare Studies, 18, 175–188. Retrieved from https://ezproxy.acadiau.ca:9443/login?url=https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/macbeth-seeds-time/docview/1297966776/se-2
Hughes, M. Y. (1943). Spenser’s Acrasia and the Circe of the Renaissance. Journal of the History of Ideas, 4(4), 381–399.
Kennedy, R. F. (2015). Elite Citizen Women and the Origins of the Hetaira in Classical Athens. Helios, 42(1), 61–79. https://doi.org/10.1353/hel.2015.0004
Martín, Y. B. (2013). THE SERVANTS OF THE DEVIL. THE DEMONIZATION OF FEMALE SEXUALITY IN THE MEDIEVAL PATRISTIC DISCOURSE. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 3(2), 48-66.
Murgatroyd, P. (2007). Mythical monsters in classical literature. Duckworth.
Ormand, K. (2008) Controlling Desires: sexuality in ancient Greece and Rome. Praeger. 21-60
Ripat, P. (2016). Roman Women, Wise Women, and Witches. Phoenix, 70(1/2), 104–128. https://doi.org/10.7834/phoenix.70.1-2.0104
Stoffelen, V. (1994). Vergil’s Circe : Source for a Sorceress. L’antiquité Classique, 63(1), 121–135. https://doi.org/10.3406/antiq.1994.1186
Top Ten: Most Terrifying Monsters Of Greek Mythology. (2018). Classicalwisdom.com. https://classicalwisdom.com/mythology/monsters/top-ten-terrifying-monsters-greek-mythology/
Walcot, P. (1984). Greek Attitudes Towards Women: The Mythological Evidence. Greece and Rome, 31(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1017/s001738350002787x
Yarnall, J. (1994). Transformations of Circe: the history of an enchantress. University of Illinois Press.
Additional sources that informed research:
Beard, M. (2018). Does the Ancient World Still Define How We Think About Women? History Hit. https://www.historyhit.com/does-the-ancient-world-still-define-how-we-think-about-women/
Felici, M. (2022, May 26). Circe: The Odyssey’s Warning for Femininity. TheCollector. https://www.thecollector.com/circe-sorceress-odyssey/
Wikipedia Contributors. (2019, September 16). Circe. Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circe
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