The idea of a murderous woman is a fascinating topic indeed. But why? Is it because the idea of men committing murder and other violent acts is an all too familiar real life story? Kyle (1998) points out how time and advancements in technology have been used as a tool by men to commit violent acts more efficiently: “Paleolithic man advanced as a species in part by developing tools and techniques to improve his killing abilities, to expand his capacity to destroy and control nature and other men…”. Many think that there are a limited number of women who have committed murder, however, that is not the case. Perhaps women are simply better at committing these acts discreetly, such as by using poison, the weapon of choice featured on this page. Nepovimova and Kuca (2018, p. 11) say that it was the secret weapon of “weak women”, probably because it did not entail physical violence, but I disagree. It takes a strong woman, let alone a woman in antiquity who lacks many of the rights thrown at men, to develop a skill that has even the most powerful emperors seeking out her services (Budin & Turfa, 2016, p. 79). This page is dedicated to such a woman who acquired the skill of poisoning, giving herself power for survival. The main sections of this page will proceed in the following order:
- Poison (Origin, Poison in Antiquity, Poison in Rome, Antidotes)
- History (Monarchy, Republic, Empire, Women in Ancient Rome)
- Roman Law on Poison and Poisoning
- Locusta of Gaul (Agrippina the Younger, Nero)
- Conclusion
POISON
The word poison comes from the word venenum (venom) which is derived from Venus, originally meaning a love potion (Cilliers & Retief, 2014, p. 88). The earliest literary source that features poison is the Ebers Papyrus (1550 BCE) (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 11). In this scroll we find passages about opium, arsenic trioxide, and aconitine, among others (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 12).
Origin
The use of poisons can be dated back to the Paleolithic period (~2.6 MYO-11,000 BCE) when it was used in the development of effective hunting methods (Borgia et al., 2017, p. 96). By dipping their arrows in poisonous substances, hunters of this time enhanced their “strategy of deceit”, by creating the ability to hunt animals who were not only further away, but bigger as well (Borgia et al., 2017, p. 96 ). The poison of choice was a curare from the plant Strychnos toxifera (Locaniaceae) (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 11).
In Ancient Africa, West African tribes used Calabar beans (Physostigma venenosum, Fabaceae) in the process of judgement for those who had been accused of witchcraft (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 12). The bean would be crushed in a mortar and soaked in water to create a white, creamy substance that the accused was then ordered to drink. Death after drinking the substance was seen as proof of guilt, whereas survival, usually from throwing up the poisoned drink, was seen as proof of innocence (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 12).
Poison in Antiquity
In antiquity, poisons could be separated into three categories based on their effects: 1) a slow poison, affecting the brain; 2) a slow poison, affecting the body; and 3) a rapid poison, killing the victim immediately (Cilliers, 2019, p. 322). From an assortment of writings by Theophrastus, Dioscorides, and Scribonius Largus from the fourth century BCE onward, we learn about many different poisons that come from a few origins (e.g., vegetable, animal, and mineral) (Cilliers & Retief, 2014, p. 91-95). From the vegetable origin, popular examples include deadly nightshade, madragora, hemlock, colchicum, opium, and mushrooms (Cilliers & Retief, 2014, p. 91-92). Examples of the animals listed include snakes, spotted geckos, and the Spanish fly (Cilliers & Retief, 2014, p. 93-94). Poisonous minerals such as lead, arsenic, and mercury were less used in the deliberate act of poisoning but are still featured in these texts (Cilliers & Retief, 2014, p. 95).
A poisonous substance was used in the execution of famous Greek philosopher Socrates (470-399 BCE): extract from hemlock (Conium maculatum, Apiaceae) (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 12). Although the stalk of hemlock is not harmful and often eaten, the seeds and leaves are fatal in how they coagulate the blood (Kaufman, 1932, p. 161). In some cases, poisonous substances such as strychnine from the Strychnine tree (Strychnos nux-vomica, Loganiaceae) were used for recreational purposes for their hallucinogenic effects (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 13). Believed to be a discourse of the gods, this practice was common among people living in India, where the plant was confined to growing during antiquity (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 13).
Aside from poisonous substances being used for deadly purposes, they were also found in the world of ancient cosmetics (Olsen, 2009, p. 295). Poisonous substances such as Cinnabar (red mercuric sulphide) and minium (red lead) were used in the making of women’s rouge (Olsen, 2009, p. 295). The following line from Ovid’s “Remedia Amoris” seems as though it could be referring to this process:
“…compositis cum collinet ora venesis”
Ov. Rem. an. 351
(“when she is painting her cheeks with poisonous concoctions”)
Poison in Rome
Poison and poisoning were not unfamiliar to the Romans (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). Livy dates the earliest evidence for poisoning in Rome to be 331 BCE when a group of women were executed for suspected mass poisoning (Livy. 8. 18).
[b]efore that day there had never been a public inquiry into charges of poisoning in Rome. The case was regarded as an ill omen, and it appeared that the women’s minds were possessed rather than depraved
Livy. 8.18
Other settings that included the use of poison were in punishment of convicted criminals and killing rivals (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). The increasing popularity of poison spurred the creation of a new profession (praegustators), who had the role of tasting food to ensure the owners would not be poisoned (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). One person who employed such a role was the emperor Claudius. When talking about Claudius, Tac. Ann. 12.66 mentions his taste tester, Halotus, who was a eunuch.
Antidotes
The fear of death by poison not only led to new professions such as taste testers, but it also encouraged many to search for an antidote (Fenton, 2001, p. 3). One ancient character that made advancements in the knowledge of poisons and antidotes is Nicander of Colophon (Touwaide, 2019, p. 44). Nicander wrote several proses and poems including the Theriaka and the Alexipharmaka (Touwaide, 2019, p. 44). The Theriaka is an extensive tract that overviews animals and there possibility for poisoning humans while the Alexipharmaka focuses on poisons, poisoning, and their antidotes (Touwaide, 2019, p. 44). Plin. Nat. 20.13 also talks about poisons and antidotes:
Radishes, too, are useful as a remedy for poisons, and are employed to counteract the effects of the sting of the cerastes and the scorpion: indeed, after having rubbed the hands with radishes or radish-seed, we may handle those reptiles with impunity
Plin. Nat. 20.13
The modern term “mithridatism”, meaning “an increased resistance of an individual to poisons” comes to us from the story of King Mithridates VI of Pontus (132-63 BCE) (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). Out of his extreme fear of poisons and poisoning, Mithridates created a “universal antidote”, containing 36 components that was later designated as “mithridaticumí” in Roman Pharmacopoeia (i.e., a book listing medicines and directions for their use) (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). The “mithridatic antidote” is defined in Plin. Nat. 23.77, along with the instructions for use:
Take two dried walnuts, two figs, and twenty leaves of rue; pound them all together, with the addition of a grain of salt; if a person takes this mixture fasting, he will be proof against all poisons for that day
Plin. Nat. 23.77
As for more fantasy-based solutions, charms were another form of antidote that were used to “ward off the ill effects of poison” (Fenton, 2001, p. 4).
History
Roman history is an important topic to discuss because it allows us to understand the structure of the society, and in turn, adequately recount how and why the murders took place. We will discuss the history of Rome through the periods that it is most commonly divided into: the Monarchy; the Republic; and the Empire (Anderson, 2018, p. 2). As well, I will provide a brief section on the life and rights of women in ancient Rome to help us better understand the world they killed in.
| MONARCHY | The Monarchic period, otherwise known as the “regal” period, is marked by kingly rulership beginning in 753 BCE with the founding of Rome and ending in 509 BCE when the last king was expelled (Anderson, 2018, p. 2). It is said that there was a total of seven kings who ruled throughout this period, starting with Romulus (Anderson, 2018, p. 3). After the death of a king, a new one was elected, either by the population or the senate, and their duties of law governing, city planning, etc. began (Riggsby, 2010, p. 11). During the later years of the Monarchy, we see increasing development of Rome, not only internally through the building of walls and streets, but externally as well as the Romans gained more and more territory (Anderson, 2018, p. 3). By the end of this period, Rome was the most powerful city in Latium (i.e., the region of Italy in which the city of Rome was founded) (Anderson, 2018, p. 4). |
| REPUBLIC | The founding of the Republic is dated to 509 BCE, after the last king of Rome, Tarquinius Superbus, was expelled (Anderson, 2018, p. 4). The death of the king transferred the power of the Kingship into the hands of the consuls (i.e., two men, typically serving a year in office, elected by male citizens), with the later addition of the magistrates (i.e., a hierarchy of men, elected by male citizens, each with separate responsibilities) (Riggsby, 2010, p. 13-14). The role of the Senate, originally serving as an advisory board for the king, continued to exist in the Republic, as an advisory board to the consuls and magistrates (Riggsby, 2010, p. 15). |
| EMPIRE | The Empire began in 27 BCE with the first emperor, Octavian (later Augustus), heir of Julius Caesar (Anderson, 2018, p. 7). Some people argue that perhaps the founding of the empire should be dated earlier, when Caesar tried to gain complete control in 49 BCE, but for the purpose of this page we will stick with the year 27 BCE (Riggsby, 2010, p. 17). In the beginning of the Empire, republican bodies such as the magistrates and the Senate continued to exist, but as time went on, Augustus and following emperors received more and more power, and the political structure began to resemble the earlier Roman Monarchy (Anderson, 2018, p. 8). Roman expansion continued over this period and reached its largest extent under the reign of Trajan (98 CE-117 CE) (Anderson, 2018, p. 8). With such a large territory under Rome’s control, it became difficult for a single emperor to rule all of it and because of this, the emperor was dependent on its military forces and the senate, creating the risk of being overthrown (Anderson, 2018, p. 8). Perhaps the most significant example of this risk being actualized is the overthrowing of the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus (Fanning, 2003, p. 45). In 476 CE Romulus Augustus was forcefully removed from the throne by Odoacer, a German Barbarian (Fanning, 2003, p. 45). |
Women in Ancient Rome
The discussion of what women’s lives were like in ancient Rome can be difficult for multiple reasons (Pomeroy, 1991, p. 265). For one, many of the sources that describe women in antiquity have been written and translated by men, a clear issue because we are learning about women through men’s biased conceptions and images of them (Pomeroy, 1991, p. 265). The writings that they have created are still used by scholars today and, in many cases, have overshadowed the sources provided by female authors such as Sappho (LP 105a, 105c, 107, 114) (Pomeroy, 1991, p. 265).
As a woman in ancient Rome you were seen as “other” in comparison to men and your identity was based on your “relationships as daughter, wife, and mother” (Mosier-Dubinsky, 2013, p. 2). Legally, women were traded from one man to another, otherwise known as a cum manus marriage (i.e., when the legal control of a woman was transferred from her father to her husband) (Kennedy, 2012, p. 3). Because of their roles in society, the ability to financially support oneself as a woman was difficult (Kennedy, 2012, p. 3). This adds to the respect that Locusta of Gaul deserves as a working woman in ancient Rome. As will be discussed in her section later, Locusta lived and worked throughout the period of the Empire (Wexler, 2015, p. 4). This time allowed emperors to have a great deal of power over all decisions in Rome, including the treatment and punishment of female poisoners such as Locusta. Later in this text you will see how Locusta became intertwined with multiple emperors, betraying some and assisting others.
Roman Law on Poison and Poisoning
As previously stated, Rome was governed by many officials over time, starting with kings and the Senate, followed by the consuls, the magistrates, and the Senate, and finally the emperors who continued to use much of the Republican legal structure with some changes.
Rome’s first written legal text is called the Law of the Twelve Tables (449 BCE), which consists of a collection of leges (i.e., laws formed from “votes of the popular assemblies”) printed on bronze plates (Riggsby, 2010, p. 26; Deac, 2021, p. 6). Within the Law of the Twelve Tables, murder by poison had a special classification and was considered quite serious (Kaufman, 1932, p. 166). In 81 BCE, a special law regarding poisoning, the Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficiis, was proposed by Sulla, a general and statesman (Fenton, 2001, p. 3). According to this law, anyone guilty of preparing, selling, buying, keeping, or administering a noxious poison was ordered to be punished (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 290). Punishment for a noble individual (i.e., a patrician) found guilty of poisoning was for them to be exiled (Fenton, 2001, p. 3). However, if the person guilty of poisoning was of low social status, their punishment was to “be given to the wild beasts in the Coliseum” (Fenton, 2001, p. 3).
To the right: The engraving of the Twelve Tables (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
Women were at a particular disadvantage as they were the ones most commonly being charged with the crime of poisoning (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 291). Women who committed venecium (the act of poisoning) were often assumed to have committed adultery’s as well, or more often vice versa (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 293). This belief is captured in a handbook on rhetoric from first century BCE, the Rhetorica ad Herenium (Rhet. Her. 4.23): “When our ancestors condemned a woman for one crime, they considered that by this single judgement she was convicted of many transgressions…” (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 293). Why is it that so much about a woman’s character was derived from one crime? Was it just another lame excuse to try and blame everything on women? Assumptions about completely unrelated concepts (I guess not unrelated in their minds) left women facing countless charges and unfair trial (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 293). It was not uncommon for a women who committed venecium to be accused of being a sorceress as well, due to the close relationship between poisoning and magic that people perceived at the time (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 291). In general, women were quite heavily associated with magic and sorcery, being accused of seducing or “bewitching” men (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 291 ).
Legally and socially, ancient Roman women drew the short straw. The use of poison was seen as a weapon for the “weak”, but how can it be now that we know the consequences that come with being committed of venecium? Being a successful female poisoner in ancient Rome would have taken great intelligence and courage knowing you will be discriminated against even more in an unequal society (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 291).
Locusta of Gaul
As the star of this page, it is only appropriate that Locusta gets a proper introduction. Locusta is known as possibly the earliest documented serial killer, with poison as her weapon of choice (Felton, 2021, p. 76-77). Her exact dates of birth and death are not well known, but we do know that she was born in Gaul, a Roman province that in modern times is mostly France (Felton, 2021, p. 77) and it is said that she died by execution during the reign of Emperor Galba who ruled from 68-69 CE (Wexler, 2015, p. 4). Throughout the first century CE, Locusta aided in the process of many murders through her talent of making poisons (Felton, 2021, p. 77). Her work is described by historians such as Tacitus (Annals. 12.66 and 13.15) and Suetonius ( Nero. 33 and 47).
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Agrippina the Younger
One of the people who Locusta had provided her masterful services to was Agrippina, the fourth wife and niece of Emperor Claudius (Felton, 2021, p. 77). Agrippina’s son from a previous marriage, Nero was set to take over the throne because he was older than the emperor’s own son, Britannicus (Felton, 2021, p. 77). However, Agrippina was impatient, and thus devised a brilliant plan to get her son on the throne sooner (Felton, 2021, p. 77).
To the left: Agrippina the Younger (Source: Wikimedia Commons)
The deed would be betrayed by one that was sudden and instantaneous, while if she chose a slow and lingering poison, there was a fear that Claudius, when near his end, might, on detecting the treachery, return to his love for his son. She decided on some rare compound which might derange his mind and delay death. A person skilled in such matters was selected, Locusta by name, who had lately been condemned for poisoning, and had long been retained as one of the tools of despotism. By this woman’s art the poison was prepared, and it was to be administered by an eunuch, Halotus, who was accustomed to bring in and taste the dishes.
Tac. Ann. 12.66
The first attempt at Claudius’s murder was unsuccessful as the poison was not strong enough (Felton, 2021, p. 77). Locusta then prepared another, stronger poison that was coated onto a feather (Felton, 2021, p. 77). The emperor’s doctor stuck the feather down Claudius’ throat telling him that it was to help him throw up his meal, when in fact it was to kill him (Felton, 2021, p. 77).
Before we move on to talking about a man I would like all of you reading this to take a second and appreciate Agrippina the Younger in this story. Not only was she powerful enough to acquire Locusta’s services, but she even had the help of the kings staff in delivering the murderous act!
Nero
Following Claudius’ death, Nero took the throne and immediately started to devise plans to take out his 14-year-old stepbrother, Britannicus, to ensure he would never be overthrown (Felton, 2021, p. 78). Nero himself also sought out Locusta for her poison-making skills; he made arrangements with an officer of the Praetorian Guard to let her free, since she was, once again, convicted for poisoning at the time (Felton, 2021, p. 78).
To the left: Gold Aureus of Nero (Source: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Collection)
Pressed by Agrippina’s menaces, having no charge against his brother and not daring openly to order his murder, he meditated a secret device and directed poison to be prepared through the agency of Julius Pollio, tribune of one of the prætorian cohorts, who had in his custody a woman under sentence for poisoning, Locusta by name, with a vast reputation for crime.
Tac. Ann. 13.15
Unfortunately for Locusta, her poison was once again too weak to kill Britannicus on first try (Felton, 2021, p. 78). Nero did not take this lightly and ordered not only for Locusta to make a stronger poison, but for her to be tortured as well (Felton, 2021, p. 79). Her new poison was tested on animals as well as slaves to prove its effectiveness, which resulted in the victims dying very quickly. The same was true for Britannicus once he himself ingested the poison at the dinner table (Felton, 2021, p. 79).
The prince had no sooner tasted it than he sunk on the floor, Nero meanwhile pretending to the guests, that it was only a fit of the falling sickness, to which, he said, he was subject.
Suet. Nero. 33
As payment for her services, Locusta was pardoned by Nero for her preceding crimes and was given a property where students were sent to learn her poison-making skills (Suet. Nero. 33).
Conclusion
The use of poison was extremely popular throughout classical antiquity, and enabled smart women, such as Locusta, to create a lifestyle in a world that was not kind to women who were unmarried and of foreign origin (Höbenreich & Rizzelli, 2015, p. 4). The popularity of poisoning is evident from the laws that were created by emperor Sulla in the Lex Cornelia de sicariis et veneficiis (Fenton, 2001, p. 3) and the antidotes that were tirelessly searched for by King Mithridates in fear of being murdered in this way (Nepovimova & Kuca, 2018, p. 14). Locusta proves that poison is not a weapon for “weak” women as she climbs her way to the top, providing her services to the most powerful people of Rome (Nepovimova and Kuca, 2018, p. 11). Let this research on the career of a powerful woman in Rome serve as a motivation to continue digging about the lives of women in antiquity and all that they accomplished.
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Women in Antiquity 